The 1855 Blackfeet Treaty, a significant historical document, was forged on October 17, 1855, along the Upper Missouri River, near the confluence with the Judith River, within the then-designated Nebraska Territory. This agreement, a culmination of negotiations between representatives of the United States government and several prominent Native American nations, aimed to establish peaceful coexistence and define territorial boundaries in the vast expanse of the American West. This article delves into the details of the 1855 Blackfeet Treaty, examining its context, provisions, and long-term implications.
Background and Participants
The mid-19th century witnessed increasing westward expansion by the United States, bringing settlers, traders, and government officials into territories traditionally inhabited by Native American tribes. This encroachment led to escalating tensions and conflicts over land, resources, and ways of life. To address these issues, the U.S. government initiated a series of treaties with various tribes, including the 1855 Blackfeet Treaty, designed to establish defined territories, secure peace, and facilitate further development of the West.
The treaty council brought together representatives from a diverse array of Native American nations. On behalf of the United States, the negotiations were led by A. Cumming and Isaac I. Stevens, commissioners duly appointed and authorized by the federal government. Representing the Native American interests were chiefs, headmen, and delegates from the following nations and tribes:
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Blackfoot Nation: This powerful confederacy comprised the Piegan, Blood, and Blackfoot tribes, as well as the Gros Ventres (also known as the Atsina). These tribes primarily occupied territories east of the Rocky Mountains, relying on hunting the abundant bison herds for their sustenance.
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Flathead Nation: Located west of the Rocky Mountains, the Flathead Nation consisted of the Flathead, Upper Pend d’Oreille, and Kootenay tribes. These tribes had a more diverse economy, incorporating hunting, fishing, and agriculture.
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Nez Perce Tribe: This distinct tribe, also residing west of the Rocky Mountains, was known for its skilled horsemen and its unique cultural traditions.
The inclusion of multiple nations highlights the complex intertribal relationships and territorial claims that existed in the region. The 1855 Blackfeet Treaty sought to address these complexities by establishing a framework for shared hunting grounds and defined territories.
Key Provisions of the Treaty
The 1855 Blackfeet Treaty encompassed sixteen articles, each addressing specific aspects of the relationship between the United States and the signatory Native American nations. These articles outlined commitments to peace, territorial boundaries, hunting rights, and provisions for economic and social development.
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Article 1: Perpetual Peace: This foundational article established a commitment to lasting peace, friendship, and amity between the United States and the signatory tribes. It aimed to create a framework for peaceful coexistence and prevent future conflicts.
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Article 2: Intertribal Peace: Recognizing the potential for conflict among the various Native American nations, this article mandated that the signatory tribes maintain peaceful relations with each other. They agreed to abstain from hostilities and cultivate mutual goodwill and friendship. The article also specified certain tribes, including the Crows, Assiniboins, Crees, Snakes, Blackfeet, Sans Arcs, and Aunce-pa-pas bands of Sioux, against whom hostilities were permitted only in self-defense.
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Article 3: Common Hunting Ground: This article established a large area as a common hunting ground for all the signatory tribes for a period of ninety-nine years. This area, defined by specific geographical landmarks, was intended to ensure that all tribes had access to essential resources for hunting, fishing, gathering, and grazing. The Blackfoot Nation, while ceding some control over this area, retained certain restrictions on its use, such as prohibiting permanent villages within ten miles of the northern boundary.
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Article 4: Blackfoot Territory: This article defined the specific territory over which the Blackfoot Nation would exercise exclusive control, subject to the provisions of Article 3 regarding the common hunting ground. The boundaries were delineated using prominent geographical features such as the Hell Gate or Medicine Rock Passes, the Muscle Shell River, the Missouri River, and the 49th parallel. A provision was included allowing the Assiniboins the right to hunt with the Blackfeet in a specifically defined area.
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Article 5: Restrictions on Western Tribes: This article placed restrictions on the tribes residing west of the Rocky Mountains, prohibiting them from entering the common hunting ground or Blackfoot territory through passes north of the Hell Gate or Medicine Rock Passes. It also forbade them from disturbing game while visiting Blackfoot territory for trade or social purposes.
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Article 6: Residency Restrictions: This article stipulated that the signatory tribes should remain within their own respective countries, except when traveling to the common hunting ground or visiting each other for trade or social interaction.
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Article 7: Rights of U.S. Citizens: This article granted citizens of the United States the right to live in and pass unmolested through the territories occupied by the signatory tribes. In return, the United States pledged to protect the Indians against depredations and other unlawful acts committed by white men residing in or passing through their country.
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Article 8: Infrastructure Development: This article granted the United States the right to construct roads, establish lines of telegraph and military posts, use materials found in the Indian country, and build facilities for agencies, missions, schools, farms, shops, and mills. It also ensured that the navigation of all lakes and streams would be forever free to citizens of the United States.
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Articles 9 and 10: Annuities and Civilization Programs: In exchange for the agreements and cessions made by the Native American tribes, the United States agreed to expend significant sums of money annually for the benefit of the Blackfoot Nation. Article 9 allocated twenty thousand dollars annually for ten years for goods and provisions, with the possibility of increasing this amount to thirty-five thousand dollars. Article 10 provided for the expenditure of fifteen thousand dollars annually for ten years to promote agricultural and mechanical pursuits, education, and the civilization and Christianization of the tribes.
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Articles 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16: These articles covered various aspects of maintaining peace, addressing violations of the treaty, prohibiting the use of intoxicating liquor, compensating for depredations, protecting annuities from individual debts, and establishing the treaty’s effective date.
Signatories and Witnesses
The 1855 Blackfeet Treaty was signed by A. Cumming and Isaac I. Stevens on behalf of the United States, as well as by numerous chiefs, headmen, and delegates representing the signatory Native American nations. The names of these individuals, along with their tribal affiliations and marks (often "his x mark"), are meticulously recorded in the treaty document. The treaty was also witnessed by a number of individuals, including government officials, interpreters, and other interested parties. The presence of these witnesses served to authenticate the agreement and provide a record of the proceedings.
Long-Term Implications and Legacy
The 1855 Blackfeet Treaty, like many treaties between the United States government and Native American tribes, had a complex and often tragic legacy. While it initially aimed to establish peace and defined territories, its provisions were frequently violated by the United States government and its citizens. The influx of settlers, the depletion of bison herds, and the introduction of diseases had devastating consequences for the Native American tribes who were party to the treaty.
Over time, the treaty’s provisions regarding hunting rights and territorial boundaries were eroded, leading to further conflicts and the loss of Native American lands. The promises of economic and social development were often unfulfilled, leaving the tribes in a state of poverty and dependence.
Despite its shortcomings, the 1855 Blackfeet Treaty remains a significant historical document. It provides valuable insights into the complex relationship between the United States government and Native American tribes in the mid-19th century. It also serves as a reminder of the broken promises and injustices that were often inflicted upon Native American communities during this period. Understanding the history and implications of the 1855 Blackfeet Treaty is crucial for fostering a more just and equitable relationship between the United States and Native American nations today.
