The 1846 Bear Spring Treaty (Navajo) stands as a pivotal, albeit controversial, moment in the complex history of relations between the United States and the Navajo Nation. It represents the first formal agreement between the two entities, setting the stage for future interactions, conflicts, and ultimately, the shaping of the Navajo people’s destiny within the expanding American landscape. This treaty, signed in the wake of escalating tensions and mutual misunderstandings, aimed to establish peace and trade between the Navajo and the United States, along with the inhabitants of New Mexico, but its legacy is fraught with questions of interpretation, enforcement, and lasting impact on the Navajo way of life.
A Land of Shifting Sands: The Pre-Treaty Landscape
To fully understand the significance of the 1846 Bear Spring Treaty (Navajo), one must consider the historical context of the Southwest in the mid-19th century. The traditional Navajo homelands, a vast expanse encompassing present-day Arizona and western New Mexico, were a dynamic and contested territory. For centuries, various groups, including the Navajo, Spanish, Mexican, Apache, Comanche, and Ute, had coexisted, often engaging in both trade and raiding. This complex web of interactions was further complicated by the arrival of American settlers after 1846, who brought with them different cultural values, land ownership concepts, and political agendas.
The Navajo, known for their resilience and adaptability, had established a unique cultural identity rooted in their relationship with the land. Their society was decentralized, organized into autonomous bands led by local headmen. Their economy relied on a combination of agriculture, livestock herding, and intricate weaving traditions. The concept of clearly defined territorial boundaries, as understood by European and American powers, was often foreign to the Navajo, whose movements were dictated by seasonal changes, resource availability, and long-standing inter-tribal dynamics.
The Raid on Socorro: A Catalyst for Action
The immediate trigger for the 1846 Bear Spring Treaty (Navajo) was a Navajo raid on the town of Socorro, New Mexico, in late September 1846. This incident, while perhaps not an isolated occurrence in the context of the Southwest’s history of raiding, served as a catalyst for the United States military to assert its authority and establish control over the region.
General Stephen W. Kearny, commander of the American forces in Santa Fe, responded to the Socorro raid by ordering his second-in-command to dispatch a regiment of soldiers into Navajo territory. The mission was clear: to secure a peace treaty with the Navajo and establish American dominance in the region. This directive set in motion the events that would lead to the signing of the treaty at Bear Spring.
Colonel Doniphan’s Expedition: A Show of Force
The task of negotiating with the Navajo fell to Colonel Alexander W. Doniphan, a prominent figure in the American military during the Mexican-American War. Doniphan, accompanied by a detachment of approximately 30 men, ventured into Navajo country in mid-October 1846. His primary objective was to demonstrate American military strength and persuade the Navajo to enter into a formal agreement.
The initial encounter between Doniphan’s forces and the Navajo took place in mid-October. Further negotiations led to a more formal meeting on November 21, 1846, at Bear Spring, also known as Ojo del Oso. This location, situated near the site where Fort Wingate would later be constructed, was chosen as the venue for the treaty signing.
At Bear Spring, Doniphan confronted a gathering of approximately five hundred Navajo, led by their respected Chief Narbona. In a statement that reflected the prevailing American perspective, Doniphan informed the Navajo that their land now belonged to the United States and that both the Navajo and the New Mexicans were henceforth considered "children of the United States." This declaration underscored the American belief in its territorial sovereignty and its paternalistic view of Native American populations.
The Terms of the Treaty: A Promise of Peace and Trade
The 1846 Bear Spring Treaty (Navajo) itself consisted of five articles outlining the terms of the agreement between the United States and the Navajo Nation. These articles, while seemingly straightforward, would later prove to be subject to varying interpretations and ultimately fail to prevent future conflicts.
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Article I: Established a "firm and lasting peace and amity" between the American people and the Navajo tribe. This aspirational goal set the foundation for the treaty’s overall intent.
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Article II: Defined the term "American people" to include the people of New Mexico and the Pueblo Indians. This provision aimed to broaden the scope of the peace agreement and foster cooperation among various groups within the region.
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Article III: Promoted "mutual trade" between the parties, envisioning a free exchange of goods and services between Americans, Mexicans, Pueblos, and the Navajo. It stipulated that all parties should be free to visit each other’s territories without molestation and receive full protection.
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Article IV: Addressed the issue of prisoners, calling for the "mutual restoration of all prisoners" and pledging to redeem those who could not be exchanged. This article sought to resolve past grievances and prevent future hostage situations.
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Article V: Mandated the "mutual restoration of all property taken by either party from the other" since August 18, 1846. This provision aimed to resolve property disputes arising from previous raids and conflicts.
The treaty was signed by Colonel Alexander W. Doniphan, Lieutenant-Colonel Congreve Jackson, and Major William Gilpin, representing the United States. Navajo chiefs, including Sarcilla Largo, Caballada de Mucho, Alexandro, Sandoval, Kiatanito, Jose Largo, Narbona, Sagundo, Pedro Jose, Manuelito, Tapio, Archulette, Juanico, and Savoietta Garcia, affixed their marks to the document, signifying their agreement to the terms.
The Journal of Private Hughes: A Glimpse into History
Our understanding of the 1846 Bear Spring Treaty (Navajo) is significantly enhanced by the journal entry of a Private Hughes, who served under Colonel Doniphan. Hughes’s account is considered to be the only known eyewitness description of the meeting between Doniphan and the Navajo leaders at Ojo Oso (Bear Spring). His personal observations provide valuable insights into the atmosphere of the negotiations, the perspectives of the participants, and the overall historical context of the event.
A Fragile Peace: The Treaty’s Legacy
Despite the lofty goals outlined in the 1846 Bear Spring Treaty (Navajo), the agreement proved to be short-lived and ultimately failed to prevent future conflicts between the Navajo and the United States. Several factors contributed to the treaty’s ineffectiveness:
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Differing Interpretations: The Navajo and the Americans held vastly different understandings of land ownership, territorial boundaries, and the nature of treaties. These fundamental differences led to misunderstandings and disagreements over the treaty’s implementation.
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Lack of Enforcement: The United States government struggled to effectively enforce the treaty’s provisions, particularly those related to trade and the prevention of raiding. This lack of enforcement undermined the treaty’s credibility and contributed to escalating tensions.
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Continued Raiding: Despite the treaty’s provisions, raiding continued on both sides. Navajo raids on American settlements and American military incursions into Navajo territory perpetuated a cycle of violence and mistrust.
The 1846 Bear Spring Treaty (Navajo), while intended to establish peace and cooperation, ultimately served as a temporary respite in a long and complex relationship. It highlights the challenges of cross-cultural communication, the difficulties of enforcing agreements across vastly different societies, and the enduring impact of historical events on the lives of individuals and communities. The 1846 Bear Spring Treaty (Navajo) is a crucial piece to understanding Native American and United States History.
