The 1791 Treaty of Holston (with the Cherokee), a pivotal agreement in the early years of the United States, was signed on July 2, 1791, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. This treaty, formally titled "A Treaty of Peace and Friendship made and concluded between the President of the United States of America and the Cherokee Nation of Indians," represented a significant effort to establish peaceful relations between the burgeoning nation and the powerful Cherokee people. It aimed to resolve ongoing conflicts, define territorial boundaries, and lay the groundwork for future interactions. The 1791 Treaty of Holston (with the Cherokee) was viewed as crucial for maintaining stability in the Southern frontier.
Historical Context: A Nation Forged in Negotiation and Conflict
The late 18th century was a period of immense change and upheaval for both the United States and the Cherokee Nation. Following the American Revolutionary War, the newly formed United States sought to assert its sovereignty over vast territories, many of which were traditionally inhabited by Native American tribes. The Cherokee, a sophisticated and influential nation, occupied a large swath of land spanning parts of present-day Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama.
Prior to the treaty, relations between the Cherokee and the United States (and, before that, the American colonies) were fraught with tension and intermittent warfare. Settler encroachment on Cherokee lands was a constant source of friction, leading to raids, retaliations, and a cycle of violence. The US government, under President George Washington, recognized the need for a more structured approach to managing relations with Native American tribes, including the Cherokee. The aim was to secure peace, regulate trade, and gradually assimilate Native populations into American society, a policy often cloaked in paternalistic language.
Negotiation and Key Figures
The negotiation of the 1791 Treaty of Holston (with the Cherokee) was a complex process involving representatives from both the United States and the Cherokee Nation. The US delegation was led by William Blount, the Governor of the Territory of the United States of America, south of the River Ohio, and Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Southern District. Blount was granted full powers by President Washington, with the advice and consent of the Senate, to negotiate and conclude the treaty. He was a key figure in the early expansion of the United States into the Southwest Territory.
Representing the Cherokee Nation were numerous chiefs and warriors, each wielding influence within their respective communities. Notable figures included Chuleoah (also known as The Boots), Squollecuttah (Hanging Maw), Occunna (The Badger), Enoleh (Black Fox), and Nontuaka (The Northward). The presence of so many leaders reflected the decentralized nature of Cherokee society, where decisions were often made through consensus and consultation among various villages and clans. The inclusion of these leaders signified a national agreement from the Cherokee.
Key Provisions of the Treaty: A Framework for Peace and Interaction
The 1791 Treaty of Holston (with the Cherokee) comprised sixteen articles, each addressing specific aspects of the relationship between the United States and the Cherokee Nation. These articles established a framework for peace, trade, and interaction, although the long-term effectiveness of these provisions would later be called into question.
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Article 1: Declared perpetual peace and friendship between citizens of the United States and members of the Cherokee Nation. This foundational article set the tone for the entire treaty, aiming to end hostilities and foster goodwill.
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Article 2: The Cherokee Nation acknowledged the protection of the United States and agreed not to enter into treaties with any foreign power, individual state, or individuals of any state. This article asserted US sovereignty over the Cherokee in matters of international relations, reflecting the US government’s desire to control interactions between Native American tribes and other entities.
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Article 3: Provided for the exchange of prisoners held by both sides, a humanitarian gesture aimed at resolving lingering issues from past conflicts. This helped rebuild trust after years of war.
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Article 4: Defined the boundary between the United States and the Cherokee Nation. This was perhaps the most critical article, as it attempted to delineate territorial limits and prevent future disputes over land. The boundary was described using natural landmarks and geographical features, such as mountains, rivers, and ridges. In exchange for ceding land to the United States, the Cherokee Nation received valuable goods and an annual payment of one thousand dollars.
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Article 5: Granted US citizens the right to use a road from Washington District to Mero District and to navigate the Tennessee River. This provision facilitated westward expansion and trade for the United States.
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Article 6: Stipulated that the United States had the sole and exclusive right to regulate trade with the Cherokee Nation. This gave the US government control over economic interactions and aimed to prevent exploitation of the Cherokee by private traders.
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Article 7: Solemnly guaranteed to the Cherokee Nation all their lands not ceded by the treaty. This was intended to protect Cherokee territory from further encroachment, although this promise would ultimately be broken.
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Articles 8-12: Addressed issues of law and order, outlining procedures for dealing with crimes committed by citizens of either nation against the other. These articles sought to establish a system of justice and prevent retaliation.
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Article 13: Required the Cherokee to notify the United States of any potential threats to peace and security from neighboring tribes or individuals.
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Article 14: Reflected the US government’s policy of assimilation, promising to provide the Cherokee Nation with agricultural implements and send individuals to reside among them as interpreters. These individuals were to teach the Cherokee methods of farming and animal husbandry, encouraging them to transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a more settled agricultural existence.
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Article 15: Called for an end to animosities and a commitment to carry the treaty into full execution with good faith and sincerity.
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Article 16: Stated that the treaty would take effect upon ratification by the President of the United States, with the advice and consent of the Senate.
An Additional Article: Increasing Compensation
In 1792, an additional article was added to the treaty, increasing the annual payment from the United States to the Cherokee Nation from one thousand dollars to one thousand five hundred dollars. This amendment, negotiated by Secretary of War Henry Knox, reflected a recognition that the original compensation was inadequate.
Impact and Legacy: A Fragile Peace
The 1791 Treaty of Holston (with the Cherokee) represented a significant attempt to establish peaceful relations between the United States and the Cherokee Nation. It provided a framework for regulating trade, defining territorial boundaries, and resolving disputes. However, the treaty’s long-term effectiveness was limited.
Despite the treaty’s provisions, settler encroachment on Cherokee lands continued, fueled by the relentless westward expansion of the United States. The US government often failed to enforce the treaty’s boundaries, and conflicts between settlers and the Cherokee persisted.
In the decades following the treaty, the Cherokee Nation underwent a period of significant cultural and political transformation. Influenced by interactions with white settlers, missionaries, and government agents, the Cherokee adopted aspects of American culture, including a written language, a constitution, and a system of representative government.
Despite these efforts to adapt and coexist, the Cherokee Nation faced increasing pressure from the US government and the states of Georgia, Tennessee, and North Carolina. The discovery of gold on Cherokee lands in Georgia in the late 1820s intensified calls for the removal of the Cherokee from their ancestral territory.
In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the forced removal of Native American tribes from the southeastern United States to lands west of the Mississippi River. Despite legal challenges and widespread opposition, the Cherokee Nation was forcibly removed from their homeland in 1838, in an event known as the Trail of Tears.
The 1791 Treaty of Holston (with the Cherokee) stands as a complex and ultimately tragic chapter in the history of US-Native American relations. While it initially offered a promise of peace and cooperation, the treaty’s provisions were ultimately undermined by the expansionist ambitions of the United States and the failure to protect Cherokee lands and sovereignty. It serves as a reminder of the broken promises and injustices inflicted upon Native American tribes during the westward expansion of the United States.
